|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
THEATRE AND DRAMA IN JAPAN Today, the Japanese theatre is more widely known in the West than that of any other Oriental country. Since World War II, China has been increasingly isolated from the rest of the world, while India's classical theatre is no longer vital. On the other hand, Japanese traditional forms still figure prominently in the repertory. Because Westerners have become increasingly familiar with Japan and its traditions, to many the Oriental theatre is above all the Japanese theatre. As in other Asian countries, in Japan the theatre descended from ritual dances. When it emerged, it assumed three major forms: Noh, puppet theatre, and Kabuki. Although Noh took shape over a long period, it first attained eminence through the work of Kanami Kiyotsugu (1333-84) and his son Zeami Motokiyo (1363-1443). These early playwrights remain the major writers of this form. Of the approximately 240 plays still in the repertory, more than 100 were written by Zeami. It was also Zeami who formulated the principles of Noh acting and production practices. Thus, Noh is rooted primarily in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. To understand the Japanese theatre, one needs to know something of political events in Japan. The period from 1338 to 1560 was one of upheaval and civil strife. With the return of peace, the Emperor was reduced to a religious and ceremonial role, while civil authority passed to the shogun, and office which became hereditary. The power of the shoguns was not broken until 1868. Between 1641 and 1868 the shoguns systematically isolated Japan from the rest of the world. At home, they enforced a feudal system under which each trade and rank was carefully regulated. Probably because the limits of freedom were so narrow, the Japanese cultivated elaborate ceremonies and rituals in every aspect of their lives, including the arts. In the theatre, each form was reduced to a system of carefully wrought conventions. Most of the Noh traditions were fixed by 1650. Although originally Noh had appealed to all classes, it became more aristocratic under the shoguns. In the seventeenth century, Noh actors were granted samurai (the highest) status and a stipend raised by a system of national requisitions. Six branches of Noh were recognized and the headship of each was made hereditary. These six schools still exist. After 1868, Noh lost its privileged position and survived primarily under the patronage of special societies. Since World War II it has been recognized as a national treasure and placed on a more secure footing. Nevertheless, the appeal of Noh is limited, for it is essentially a form of the past. The language, based upon aristocratic speech of the fourteenth century, is unintelligible to most persons today. Many spectators bring scripts so that they may follow the plays. The majority of lines, some in typically fewer than one-third of the text - are recited in a highly stylized manner. Ordinary speech is heard only between the parts of a two-act piece when someone comes on stage to summarized what has happened in the first part. Noh is essentially a dance-drama in which the script serves to create a setting for choreographic movement. It is not primarily concerned with dramatic action; rather, it seeks to express a situation in lyrical form. All Noh plays reach their fulfillment in a dance; the lines which precede the climactic dance serve primarily to establish the circumstances which motivate it. A chorus sings the actor's line while he is dancing and narrates much of the story. The script of a Noh drama is usually shorter than that of a Western one-act-play. Noh plays are roughly classified into five types: kamimono or wakinomono, plays about gods; shuramono, about warriors; kazuramono, about women; kuruimono, about mad persons (often spirits), although this category has a number of divisions such as genzaimono "the earthly piece" dealing with contemporary persons realistically treated; and kirinomono, about demons. Traditionally, these categories have dictated programming, a total of five plays, in the order listed, making up a program. In recent years, however, it has become common to have programs composed of only two or three plays. One of the most popular of Noh plays is Atsumori by Zeami. It includes only three characters, one very minor. It tells of the warrior Kumagai, who has killed Atsumori, a powerful nobleman, in battle. Kumagai is so grieved that he has become a priest, Rensei, so that he may pray for Atsumori's soul. On his way to a shrine, he encounters some reapers. When one of the reapers declares that he is a member of Atsumori's family, Rensei kneels to pray. This ends the first of the two acts. In the interlude between the acts, the events surrounding Atsumori's death are narrated. At the beginning of the second part, the ghost of Atsumori (the reaper of the first act) now appears dressed as a young warrior and identifies himself to Rensei. The remainder of the play is largely a narrative which establishes the background of the battle in which Atsumori perished. The play culminates in the recreation of the fight, a dance to the ghost of Atsumori hovers over Rensei, ready to deliver a death blow, but Rensei's prayers have been effective. The play ends with Atsumori saluting Rensei with "pray for me again, oh pray for me again." The entire script consumes only about nine pages in print. All Noh performers are male. The principal character is called shite, the secondary character waki. Each may have a companion, although many plays include only two characters. Seldom does a cast extend beyond six characters. Children, or kokata, may play young princes or other youthful parts. The shite and his companions wear masks made of painted wood. Other characters are unmasked. Masks may be divided into five basic kinds: aged, male, female, gods, and monsters. These types have many variations and occasionally special masks are required. Costumes are based upon the ceremonial dress of several centuries ago, although adapted to achieve a sense of grandeur and to increase the performer's apparent stature. Garments are rich in color and design; most are made of silk and are elaborately embroidered. They are never gaudy, however, as are the costumes of the Chinese theatre. Articles of dress my be divided into four categories: outer garments; indoor clothing or garments worn without overdress; lower garments, such as divided skirts; and headdresses. Within each category there are many variations, but the same garments may be combined with others for use in several different roles. Thus, costumes are less rigidly conventionalized in color and design than in the Chinese theatre. Only a few, highly conventionalized hand properties are used. The most important is the fan, which can suggest the rising moon, falling most important is the fan, which can suggest the rising moon, falling rain, rippling water, and blowing wind, as well as a variety of emotional responses. The meaning of the fan is indicated by the actor's pantomime and the musical accompaniment. Stage furnishings are also simple. A wooden or bamboo stand may symbolize a mountain, place, bedroom or other place, depending upon how it is decorated. Usually no more than one or two stage properties are present at once. Each is highly stylized. There is no scenery or stage machinery. The design of the stage itself has been fixed since about 1615. There are two principal parts: the bridge (hashigakari), and the main acting area (butai). Both are roofed. The roof over the main stage is supported by four columns, each with its own name. The upstage right pillar is called shitebashira ("principal character's pillar"), for here the shite pauses as he enters to announce his name and to give other pertinent information. While reciting, he faces the downstage right pillar (the metsukebashira). The downstage left pillar is called wakibashira, because of its association with the secondary character (or alternatively the daijinbashira, or "minister's pillar," because which the flute player sits, is called the fuebashira (or "flute pillar'). The main platform is divided into three areas, although the only architectural barriers are the four pillars. The largest part, used for the main square. The floor of this area is specially constructed and sounding jars are placed underneath to make the rhythmic and empathic stamping of feet, a distinctive feature of Noh, more effective. To stage left of the main area is the wakiza, used primarily for the eight- to ten-member chorus, which narrates much of the story. Back of the upstage pillars is the atoza, occupied by the orchestra composed of two or three drummers and a flute player. The principal entrance to the stage is the bridge (hashigakari), a railed gangway extending from thirty-three to fifty-two feet in length and about six feet in width. It joins the stage to the dressing rooms. It is used for all important entrances. In front of it are planted three small pine trees, symbolizing man, earth, and heaven. In the upstage left corner of the atoza is located a second entrance, the "hurry door," used by subordinate characters, stage assistants, chorus, and musicians. It is only about three feet high. Another door, the "noble's door," is located upstage of the wakiza, but now a days is almost never used. The rear wall of the stage and bridge are made of wood. On the portion behind the atoza is painted bamboo and pine trees, probably representative of the natural setting which formed the background for the original Noh performances. The audience views the stage from two sides. It is seated in front of the main stage, along the stage-right side of the main platform, and in front of the bridge. The object of a Noh performance is to capture the essence of a situation or emotion. Every episode is drawn out, often to great length. The high points take the form of extremely stylized static gestures or bodily attitudes held for some time. During a performance, every movement of hands and feet, every intonation must follow set rules. The orchestra furnishes the musical setting and establishes the time of every gesture. Noh is one of the world's most carefully controlled theatrical experiences. The over-all effect is that of an elaborate ceremony or ritual. The Noh plays on a program are separated by kyogen, or short farcical pieces. Kyogen do not use musical accompaniment; all of the dialogue is spoken. Kyogen actors rarely appear in Noh, and seldom wear masks. Most kyogen plays require no more than three actors, although occasionally more are used. Essentially humorous and pantomimic, kyogen plays are, nevertheless, performed according to rigidly controlled patterns. Puppets have also played a significant role in Japanese theatrical life. Puppet performances may be traced back to the Heian period. (A.D. 781-1185), but the puppet theatre did not emerge until the Keicho era (1596-1614). It is given its definitive form by Takemoto Gidayuzaemon (1653-1724), usually considered Japan's greatest playwright, who worked with Takemoto at his puppet theatre in Osaka. The puppets themselves have undergone many changes. Originally, only a head was used, but by 1678 full figures, with hands and feet, were common. During the eighteenth century, devices were developed to permit the puppets to move their eyes, fingers, eyebrows. They were also enlarged to their present height of three or four feet. Thus, the figures become ever more lifelike. As puppets become more complex, more operators were required. Originally, one operator, completely hidden from view, was sufficient. By the eighteenth century, three men, all completely visible, were required for each principal puppet. One manipulated the head and right arm, another the left arm, and the third the feet. The stage also became more complex. Unlike the Noh, scenery was used in puppet theatre, and the desire to change the background motivated the invention of much stage machinery which was to remain largely unknown in the West until about 1900. Elevator traps were introduced in 1727 to raise scenery through the floor and in 1758 the revolving stage was invented. The conventions of puppet theatre were fixed during the eighteenth century, the peak of its popularity. After this time, it was overshadowed by the Kabuki. Today it survives primarily in one company, the Bunraku of Osaka. A performance in puppet theatre begins with the appearance of an announcer, clad in black and wearing a hood (the dress of all stage assistants except the principal puppet handlers, musicians, and narrator). He announces the name of the piece, the samisen player, and the narrator. The instrumentalists and singers sit on a raised platform at stage left; the samisen player and narrator are located at the front edge facing the audience. The samisen is a three-stringed instrument with a drumlike base. It is simultaneously plucked with a large pick and struck with the hand or fingers. Samisen accompaniment is considered essential in puppet theatre, for it follows the rise and fall of the voice and gives special emphasis as needed. Since puppet handlers do not speak, the narrator tells the story, speaks the dialogue, and expresses the emotions of each puppet. He may weep, laugh, draw back in astonishment or fear as he reacts to the changing situation. The stage is long and shallow. A low partition across the front represents the level upon which the puppets supposedly walk. Back of this, the puppet operators act out the story. All locales are represented scenically and are changed as the story demands. Numerous properties are also used. The puppets vary somewhat in size and complexity according to their function in the drama. Supernumeraries do not have movable eyes or fingers and are usually operated by a single handler. Female puppets, even major characters, do not usually have feet. Puppets representing important characters are equipped with extremely complex mechanisms. Only the principal handlers are clothed in elaborate costumes, subordinate handlers wear the black dress of stage assistants. The handlers attempt to absorb themselves in the drama and to become one with the puppets they manipulate. The Japanese puppet theatre is probably the most complex puppet theatre in the world. Today, Kabuki is the most vital of the traditional Japanese forms, for it has remained sensitive to change. But for this reason, many critics consider it debased, since it has borrowed freely from Noh, puppet theatre, and other sources. Perhaps because it has remained sensitive to change, Kabuki is the Japanese form most easily understood by Western audiences. Kabuki originated around 1600 when Okuni, a ceremonial dancer, began to give public performances in Kyoto. Although it soon attained great popularity, the shoguns, always suspicious of it, sought to restrict its growth. In 1629, women were forbidden to appear on the stage, and in 1652 young men's Kabuki was banned. Thus, it was men's Kabuki which persisted. Until the end of the eighteenth century, Kabuk borrowed heavily from puppet theatre, taking over many of its plays, as well as its stage machinery and architecture. After 1780 it eclipsed puppet theatre in popularity. Since the fall of the shoguns, in 1868, it has been Japan's major dramatic form. Kabuki plays began as simple sketches incorporated into danced performances. The first two-act piece was not given until 1664. The first important writer of this form was Chikamatsu, who worked for Kabuki troupes before turning to puppet theatre. Many of Chikamastsu's puppet plays were later adapted for Kabuki performance. Next to Chikamatsu, the most famous Kabuki dramatist is Takeda Izum (1691-1756), Chikamatsu's successor as playwright to the Osaka puppet theatre. He is remembered primarily for Chushingura (1748), the most popular of all Kabuki plays. Eleven acts long, Chushingura, requires a full day in performance. It is based upon an actual event in which forty-seven faithful followers avenged the wrongs done to their master. Only one writer after Izumo, Kawatake Mokuami (1816-93), is of importance, being especially noted for his low-life characters. Today, almost every Kabuki program includes a selection from one of his approximately fifty plays. Kabuki plays are divided into three types: jidai kyogen, or plays with a historical background; sewamono, or plays with a domestic or low-life background; and shosagoto, or dance plays. Within these categories there is much variety, for the Japanese do not have precisely defined dramatic forms. A Kabuki play often mingles the comic and the serious. Here are few purely comic works, however, and these are dance plays in one act. Some longer works are called comedies because they end happily. The majority of plays are essential melodramas. Kabuki scripts concentrate upon climatic moments rather than upon a clearly articulated story. Thus there are many strong scenes but the connection between them is sometimes vague. The habit of writing relatively complete episodes probably explains the modern practice of making up programs from parts of plays, or even parts of acts. Kabuki programs are long. In the eighteenth century, they lasted all day. In 1868, the maximum length was set at eight hours. Since World War II, it has been usual to give two performances a day, each about five hours long. Many critics consider dance to be the basis types as tachiyaku, loyal and courageous men; katakiyaku, villains; wakashukata, young men, who may be called nimaime if they are of mild disposition; dokekata, comic roles; koyaku, children's roles; and onnagata, women's roles, all played by men. Because Kabuki acting is based upon conventions, it requires long and careful study. The actor usually begins his training at the age of six or seven; he appears on stage in children's roles from the very beginning. Thus, his work combines study and practice. Since acting is largely a hereditary profession, most of the actors come from a few families. Each family has its own system of stage names, some of which are so honored that they can be assumed only by undisputed masters of their art. A Kabuki actor is seldom considered mature until middle age. Kabuki does not make use of masks. Most roles, however, require boldly patterned makeup. Typically, the makeup is composed of a white base upon which patterns of red, black, blue, or brown are painted. The onnagata merely add roughing at the corners of the eyes, leaving the rest of the face white. The makeup of each character is symbolic of his role. Every role also requires a conventionalized costume. Most garments are based upon historical dress, which is altered for dramatic purposes. Since accuracy is of little importance, several historical periods may be used in the same play. Patterns and colors are usually subdued. Dome costumes weigh as much as fifty pounds and must be rearranged frequently with the assistance of stage attendants. The attendants wear black and are considered to be invisible. Every scene is accompanied by music. Because Kabuki has borrowed from many sources, the placement of the musicians on stage varies: for plays based on Noh, the musicians are placed upstage; for those borrowed form puppet theatre, the musicians are at stage left; for still other plays, the musicians are seated on stage right. In addition to the onstage musicians, others are sometimes placed behind a screen on stage right to provide special effects. As in puppet theatre, the most essential instrument is the samisen, which accompanies the singing and narration. The visible musicians are dressed in kamishimo (divided skirt, kimono, stiff horizontal shoulder pieces), the formal dress of the nobility in the eighteenth century. When not performing, the musicians sit upright and motionless. There is none of the informality of the Chinese theatre. Since the Kabuki actor does not sing, a narrator and chorus are often prominent, especially in those plays adapted from Noh and puppet theatre. The narrator may set the scene, speak part of the dialogue, or comment upon the action. Even in those plays written for Kabuki, the narrator recites many passages, especially during complex dances or strenuous action. Even spoken passages are related to music, for they follow conventionalized intonational patterns. Originally Kabuki used the Noh stage. As it came under the influence of puppet theatre, however, it adopted many conventions from that form. Elevator traps were added in 1736 and the revolving stage in 1793. After 1827, the revolving stage was built in two sections, one inside the other, which revolved independently. A forestage was added in the eighteenth century and became the principal acting area. Around 1725, one of the Kabuki's most distinctive features, the hanamichi, appeared. A raised gangway leading from a small room at the rear of the auditorium to the stage, the hanamichi is used for all important entrances as well as for many important scenes. This innovation was so popular that a second hanamichi was added in the 1780's. By the early nineteenth century, the Kabuki stage had reached its characteristic form. The Noh roof had been abandoned and the stage enlarged until it occupied the entire width of the auditorium. The auditorium was divided into numerous square enclosures, or floor boxes, in which spectators sat on mats. After 1868 many changes occurred as Western influence increased. The proscenium arch was introduced in 1908 and after 1920 both the proscenium arch and Western-style seating became standard. The second hanamichi was abandoned, although it is still installed temporarily for pieces requiring it. In 1878 gas lighting was introduced and evening performances began. Since the late nineteenth stage lighting. Today, Kabuki is noted for its beautiful stage lighting. Western influence has not altered the basic characteristics of the Kabuki stage, however, for, although the proscenium arch is now used, the proportions are unlike those found in the West. For example, in the present Kabukiza in Tokoyo the proscenium arch is ninety feet wide but only twenty feet tall. The auditorium is also proportioned differently. In the Kabukiza, it is only sixty feet deep and about 100 feet wide. Unlike Noh, Kabuki represents every locale scenically. The scenery is changed in full view of the audience by means of the revolving stage, elevators, grooves, or by stage attendants. Most settings emphasize lateral composition. Perhaps for his reason, no more than two sets are erected on the revolving stage at once; settings are never triangular. Painting is seldom purely representational. For example, the rear of the stage is often enclosed by flats showing a distant view; the painting is not illusionistic, however, for the cracks between the flats show and the top of the view is cut off with black curtains. Sometimes relatively realistic buildings are erected on stage, but they are almost always combined with symbolic pieces. Such scenery is used conventionally. White mats may represent snow, blue mats water, gray mats ground. Different kinds of trees may indicate a change in locale. Similarly, properties range from the symbolic to the realistic. The fan is used, as in Noh, to indicate riding horse, shooting an arrow, opening a door, the rising of the moon, the falling of rain, and many other actions. Scarves serve equally diverse purposes. Other properties are partially representational. Perhaps the Kabuki horse best summarizes the mixture of realism and convention. A wooden framework, shaped like a horse, is covered with velvet and equipped with saddle and bridle. The upper part is clearly representational. But this framework is mounted on the back of two actors, whose legs clearly show. Other properties, such as armor, swords, human heads, animals, and household goods – are treated in such the same manner. It is this mingling of the conventional with the realistic that makes Kabuki more easily accessible to the Western viewer than any of the other traditional Oriental forms. Perhaps short discussion of a Kabuki play will further clarify the form. Since Chikamatsu is universally considered the greatest of Japanese playwrights, his The Battles of Coxinga (1715), a history or jidai kyogen play, has been selected. This was Chikamatsu's most popular work, originally playing for seventeen months and being revived frequently thereafter. The Battles of Coxinga is divided into five acts and twelve scenes; in time, it covers a period of six or seven years beginning in 1644. The basic story may be summarized briefly. The evil minister, Ri Toten, betrays his country (China) to the Tartars, who capture the palace and behead the Emperor. The Empress, about to bear a a child, flees but is killed. A faithful minister rips open her womb and rescues the child. The Emperor's sister, cast adrift in a boat, floats to Japan where she is rescued by Watonai (later called Coxinga), the son of an exiled Chinese official. Watonai and his parents decide to return to China and to lead an uprising. After a series of exploits, many magical, Coxinga recaptures the palace and restores the young Emperor to the throne. Each act develops a different phase of the story and each builds to a high point of action. Act I shows the betrayal, battle, deaths of the rulers, and the escape of the Princess (made possible by a female attendant who fights off an army of pursuers). Act II tells of the arrival of the Princess in Japan, Coxinga's return to China, and his incredible fight with a tiger in the forest. Act III shows Coxinga's attempt to recruit followers, eventually made possible by the suicides of his mother and half-sister, both of whom disembower themselves on stage. Act IV shows the the progress of the struggle, with the recapture of the palace, the flaying of the Tartar prince and the beheading of Ri Toten. Thus, each act builds to a strong scene allowing the actors to display their special skills. The characters are divided into the good and the evil. They are differentiated primarily on the basis of age, sex, rank, and degrees of strength or self-sacrifice. The cast includes twenty-three persons and a number of supernumerary characters. The place shifts often. Locales include the palace, a seacoast in Japan, the exterior of an armed fort, a forest, the mountains, various interiors, and the open sea. At least twelve settings are required. It would be almost impossible to stage this play if illusionism were sought. The task is simplified because the narrator speaks a large part of the text. (This play was originally written for puppet theatre.) The narrative provides exposition, summarizes action which has occurred between scenes, reports the internal feelings of the character, and describes the action during climactic scenes. Although the actors are assigned many lines, they are more involved in pantomimic dance. Thus, the battles, suicides, beheadings, and other violent deeds are rendered as choreographically ordered realism. Just as the story is larger than life, its rendition lies somewhere between fantasy and reality; its stylized action, speech, and music create a spectacle of great beauty. In addition to the classic forms, newer styles of drama developed. The earliest of these, shimpa, began about 1888 and grew out of the desire to portray contemporary ideas and events realistically. Shingeki – new theatre after 1906 introduced many plays of Western authors such as Shakespeare, Moliére, Shaw, Chekhov, and encouraged Japanese dramatists to write in the Occidental mode. Western influence also came through motion pictures, musicals, opera, ballet. Awareness of the Oriental theatre developed only gradually in the West. The first important change came in 1789, when Sir William James translated Shakuntla into English. In 1791 this version was translated into German and in 1803 in French. Shakuntala made an enormous impression on Europeans, perhaps because it came at a time when romanticism was emerging. EASTERN INFLUENCE IN THE WEST Interest in Oriental drama had little effect upon the theatre until the end of the nineteenth century, for at first there was little appreciation of Asian theatrical conventions, so markedly different from the illusionistic techniques then standard in the West. Not until the revolt against realism began in the 1890's did Oriental theatrical practices begin to attract Western directors. Considerable interest was aroused by a Chinese troupe which played in Paris in 1895 and by a Japanese group which appeared in London in 1900. During the early twentieth century a number of individual performers toured widely in the west. Nevertheless, it was not until such directors as Lugné-Poë, Meyerhold, Brecht, and Artaud began to champion Oriental practices as antidotes to realism that Eastern conventions had any real impact. Innovations were at first considered merely perverse, but since World War II they have aroused increasing sympathy. Although it is doubtful that many Westerners even now truly understand the Oriental theatre (beyond a few conventions), the Eastern and Western theatres are in closer contact today than at any time in the past. Many developments in the modern theatre are more easily understood if the awakening interest in Oriental conventions is remembered. Excerpt From: 
NOH PHOTOS & CAPTIONS TO THE EXCERPT
Other sites to visit regarding the Noh masks - Shogun Gallery, Inc. Teagarden Steet ATR Media Information Science Lab Back to Newsletter Appendium COLVEYCO'S NOH MASKS |